This is ../info/emacs, produced by makeinfo version 4.3 from emacs.texi.

   This is the Fourteenth edition of the `GNU Emacs Manual', updated
for Emacs version 21.3.

INFO-DIR-SECTION Emacs
START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
* Emacs: (emacs).	The extensible self-documenting text editor.
END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY

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File: emacs,  Node: Recognize Coding,  Next: Specify Coding,  Prev: Coding Systems,  Up: International

Recognizing Coding Systems
==========================

   Emacs tries to recognize which coding system to use for a given text
as an integral part of reading that text.  (This applies to files being
read, output from subprocesses, text from X selections, etc.)  Emacs
can select the right coding system automatically most of the time--once
you have specified your preferences.

   Some coding systems can be recognized or distinguished by which byte
sequences appear in the data.  However, there are coding systems that
cannot be distinguished, not even potentially.  For example, there is no
way to distinguish between Latin-1 and Latin-2; they use the same byte
values with different meanings.

   Emacs handles this situation by means of a priority list of coding
systems.  Whenever Emacs reads a file, if you do not specify the coding
system to use, Emacs checks the data against each coding system,
starting with the first in priority and working down the list, until it
finds a coding system that fits the data.  Then it converts the file
contents assuming that they are represented in this coding system.

   The priority list of coding systems depends on the selected language
environment (*note Language Environments::).  For example, if you use
French, you probably want Emacs to prefer Latin-1 to Latin-2; if you use
Czech, you probably want Latin-2 to be preferred.  This is one of the
reasons to specify a language environment.

   However, you can alter the priority list in detail with the command
`M-x prefer-coding-system'.  This command reads the name of a coding
system from the minibuffer, and adds it to the front of the priority
list, so that it is preferred to all others.  If you use this command
several times, each use adds one element to the front of the priority
list.

   If you use a coding system that specifies the end-of-line conversion
type, such as `iso-8859-1-dos', what this means is that Emacs should
attempt to recognize `iso-8859-1' with priority, and should use DOS
end-of-line conversion when it does recognize `iso-8859-1'.

   Sometimes a file name indicates which coding system to use for the
file.  The variable `file-coding-system-alist' specifies this
correspondence.  There is a special function
`modify-coding-system-alist' for adding elements to this list.  For
example, to read and write all `.txt' files using the coding system
`china-iso-8bit', you can execute this Lisp expression:

     (modify-coding-system-alist 'file "\\.txt\\'" 'china-iso-8bit)

The first argument should be `file', the second argument should be a
regular expression that determines which files this applies to, and the
third argument says which coding system to use for these files.

   Emacs recognizes which kind of end-of-line conversion to use based on
the contents of the file: if it sees only carriage-returns, or only
carriage-return linefeed sequences, then it chooses the end-of-line
conversion accordingly.  You can inhibit the automatic use of
end-of-line conversion by setting the variable `inhibit-eol-conversion'
to non-`nil'.  If you do that, DOS-style files will be displayed with
the `^M' characters visible in the buffer; some people prefer this to
the more subtle `(DOS)' end-of-line type indication near the left edge
of the mode line (*note eol-mnemonic: Mode Line.).

   By default, the automatic detection of coding system is sensitive to
escape sequences.  If Emacs sees a sequence of characters that begin
with an escape character, and the sequence is valid as an ISO-2022
code, that tells Emacs to use one of the ISO-2022 encodings to decode
the file.

   However, there may be cases that you want to read escape sequences
in a file as is.  In such a case, you can set the variable
`inhibit-iso-escape-detection' to non-`nil'.  Then the code detection
ignores any escape sequences, and never uses an ISO-2022 encoding.  The
result is that all escape sequences become visible in the buffer.

   The default value of `inhibit-iso-escape-detection' is `nil'.  We
recommend that you not change it permanently, only for one specific
operation.  That's because many Emacs Lisp source files in the Emacs
distribution contain non-ASCII characters encoded in the coding system
`iso-2022-7bit', and they won't be decoded correctly when you visit
those files if you suppress the escape sequence detection.

   You can specify the coding system for a particular file using the
`-*-...-*-' construct at the beginning of a file, or a local variables
list at the end (*note File Variables::).  You do this by defining a
value for the "variable" named `coding'.  Emacs does not really have a
variable `coding'; instead of setting a variable, this uses the
specified coding system for the file.  For example, `-*-mode: C;
coding: latin-1;-*-' specifies use of the Latin-1 coding system, as
well as C mode.  When you specify the coding explicitly in the file,
that overrides `file-coding-system-alist'.

   The variables `auto-coding-alist' and `auto-coding-regexp-alist' are
the strongest way to specify the coding system for certain patterns of
file names, or for files containing certain patterns; these variables
even override `-*-coding:-*-' tags in the file itself.  Emacs uses
`auto-coding-alist' for tar and archive files, to prevent it from being
confused by a `-*-coding:-*-' tag in a member of the archive and
thinking it applies to the archive file as a whole.  Likewise, Emacs
uses `auto-coding-regexp-alist' to ensure that RMAIL files, whose names
in general don't match any particular pattern, are decoded correctly.

   If Emacs recognizes the encoding of a file incorrectly, you can
reread the file using the correct coding system by typing `C-x <RET> c
CODING-SYSTEM <RET> M-x revert-buffer <RET>'.  To see what coding
system Emacs actually used to decode the file, look at the coding
system mnemonic letter near the left edge of the mode line (*note Mode
Line::), or type `C-h C <RET>'.

   Once Emacs has chosen a coding system for a buffer, it stores that
coding system in `buffer-file-coding-system' and uses that coding
system, by default, for operations that write from this buffer into a
file.  This includes the commands `save-buffer' and `write-region'.  If
you want to write files from this buffer using a different coding
system, you can specify a different coding system for the buffer using
`set-buffer-file-coding-system' (*note Specify Coding::).

   You can insert any possible character into any Emacs buffer, but
most coding systems can only handle some of the possible characters.
This means that it is possible for you to insert characters that cannot
be encoded with the coding system that will be used to save the buffer.
For example, you could start with an ASCII file and insert a few
Latin-1 characters into it, or you could edit a text file in Polish
encoded in `iso-8859-2' and add some Russian words to it.  When you
save the buffer, Emacs cannot use the current value of
`buffer-file-coding-system', because the characters you added cannot be
encoded by that coding system.

   When that happens, Emacs tries the most-preferred coding system (set
by `M-x prefer-coding-system' or `M-x set-language-environment'), and
if that coding system can safely encode all of the characters in the
buffer, Emacs uses it, and stores its value in
`buffer-file-coding-system'.  Otherwise, Emacs displays a list of
coding systems suitable for encoding the buffer's contents, and asks
you to choose one of those coding systems.

   If you insert the unsuitable characters in a mail message, Emacs
behaves a bit differently.  It additionally checks whether the
most-preferred coding system is recommended for use in MIME messages;
if not, Emacs tells you that the most-preferred coding system is not
recommended and prompts you for another coding system.  This is so you
won't inadvertently send a message encoded in a way that your
recipient's mail software will have difficulty decoding.  (If you do
want to use the most-preferred coding system, you can still type its
name in response to the question.)

   When you send a message with Mail mode (*note Sending Mail::), Emacs
has four different ways to determine the coding system to use for
encoding the message text.  It tries the buffer's own value of
`buffer-file-coding-system', if that is non-`nil'.  Otherwise, it uses
the value of `sendmail-coding-system', if that is non-`nil'.  The third
way is to use the default coding system for new files, which is
controlled by your choice of language environment, if that is
non-`nil'.  If all of these three values are `nil', Emacs encodes
outgoing mail using the Latin-1 coding system.

   When you get new mail in Rmail, each message is translated
automatically from the coding system it is written in, as if it were a
separate file.  This uses the priority list of coding systems that you
have specified.  If a MIME message specifies a character set, Rmail
obeys that specification, unless `rmail-decode-mime-charset' is `nil'.

   For reading and saving Rmail files themselves, Emacs uses the coding
system specified by the variable `rmail-file-coding-system'.  The
default value is `nil', which means that Rmail files are not translated
(they are read and written in the Emacs internal character code).


File: emacs,  Node: Specify Coding,  Next: Fontsets,  Prev: Recognize Coding,  Up: International

Specifying a Coding System
==========================

   In cases where Emacs does not automatically choose the right coding
system, you can use these commands to specify one:

`C-x <RET> f CODING <RET>'
     Use coding system CODING for the visited file in the current
     buffer.

`C-x <RET> c CODING <RET>'
     Specify coding system CODING for the immediately following command.

`C-x <RET> k CODING <RET>'
     Use coding system CODING for keyboard input.

`C-x <RET> t CODING <RET>'
     Use coding system CODING for terminal output.

`C-x <RET> p INPUT-CODING <RET> OUTPUT-CODING <RET>'
     Use coding systems INPUT-CODING and OUTPUT-CODING for subprocess
     input and output in the current buffer.

`C-x <RET> x CODING <RET>'
     Use coding system CODING for transferring selections to and from
     other programs through the window system.

`C-x <RET> X CODING <RET>'
     Use coding system CODING for transferring _one_ selection--the
     next one--to or from the window system.

   The command `C-x <RET> f' (`set-buffer-file-coding-system')
specifies the file coding system for the current buffer--in other
words, which coding system to use when saving or rereading the visited
file.  You specify which coding system using the minibuffer.  Since this
command applies to a file you have already visited, it affects only the
way the file is saved.

   Another way to specify the coding system for a file is when you visit
the file.  First use the command `C-x <RET> c'
(`universal-coding-system-argument'); this command uses the minibuffer
to read a coding system name.  After you exit the minibuffer, the
specified coding system is used for _the immediately following command_.

   So if the immediately following command is `C-x C-f', for example,
it reads the file using that coding system (and records the coding
system for when the file is saved).  Or if the immediately following
command is `C-x C-w', it writes the file using that coding system.
Other file commands affected by a specified coding system include `C-x
C-i' and `C-x C-v', as well as the other-window variants of `C-x C-f'.

   `C-x <RET> c' also affects commands that start subprocesses,
including `M-x shell' (*note Shell::).

   However, if the immediately following command does not use the coding
system, then `C-x <RET> c' ultimately has no effect.

   An easy way to visit a file with no conversion is with the `M-x
find-file-literally' command.  *Note Visiting::.

   The variable `default-buffer-file-coding-system' specifies the
choice of coding system to use when you create a new file.  It applies
when you find a new file, and when you create a buffer and then save it
in a file.  Selecting a language environment typically sets this
variable to a good choice of default coding system for that language
environment.

   The command `C-x <RET> t' (`set-terminal-coding-system') specifies
the coding system for terminal output.  If you specify a character code
for terminal output, all characters output to the terminal are
translated into that coding system.

   This feature is useful for certain character-only terminals built to
support specific languages or character sets--for example, European
terminals that support one of the ISO Latin character sets.  You need to
specify the terminal coding system when using multibyte text, so that
Emacs knows which characters the terminal can actually handle.

   By default, output to the terminal is not translated at all, unless
Emacs can deduce the proper coding system from your terminal type or
your locale specification (*note Language Environments::).

   The command `C-x <RET> k' (`set-keyboard-coding-system') or the
Custom option `keyboard-coding-system' specifies the coding system for
keyboard input.  Character-code translation of keyboard input is useful
for terminals with keys that send non-ASCII graphic characters--for
example, some terminals designed for ISO Latin-1 or subsets of it.

   By default, keyboard input is not translated at all.

   There is a similarity between using a coding system translation for
keyboard input, and using an input method: both define sequences of
keyboard input that translate into single characters.  However, input
methods are designed to be convenient for interactive use by humans, and
the sequences that are translated are typically sequences of ASCII
printing characters.  Coding systems typically translate sequences of
non-graphic characters.

   The command `C-x <RET> x' (`set-selection-coding-system') specifies
the coding system for sending selected text to the window system, and
for receiving the text of selections made in other applications.  This
command applies to all subsequent selections, until you override it by
using the command again.  The command `C-x <RET> X'
(`set-next-selection-coding-system') specifies the coding system for
the next selection made in Emacs or read by Emacs.

   The command `C-x <RET> p' (`set-buffer-process-coding-system')
specifies the coding system for input and output to a subprocess.  This
command applies to the current buffer; normally, each subprocess has its
own buffer, and thus you can use this command to specify translation to
and from a particular subprocess by giving the command in the
corresponding buffer.

   The default for translation of process input and output depends on
the current language environment.

   The variable `file-name-coding-system' specifies a coding system to
use for encoding file names.  If you set the variable to a coding
system name (as a Lisp symbol or a string), Emacs encodes file names
using that coding system for all file operations.  This makes it
possible to use non-ASCII characters in file names--or, at least, those
non-ASCII characters which the specified coding system can encode.

   If `file-name-coding-system' is `nil', Emacs uses a default coding
system determined by the selected language environment.  In the default
language environment, any non-ASCII characters in file names are not
encoded specially; they appear in the file system using the internal
Emacs representation.

   *Warning:* if you change `file-name-coding-system' (or the language
environment) in the middle of an Emacs session, problems can result if
you have already visited files whose names were encoded using the
earlier coding system and cannot be encoded (or are encoded
differently) under the new coding system.  If you try to save one of
these buffers under the visited file name, saving may use the wrong file
name, or it may get an error.  If such a problem happens, use `C-x C-w'
to specify a new file name for that buffer.

   The variable `locale-coding-system' specifies a coding system to use
when encoding and decoding system strings such as system error messages
and `format-time-string' formats and time stamps.  That coding system
is also used for decoding non-ASCII keyboard input on X Window systems.
You should choose a coding system that is compatible with the
underlying system's text representation, which is normally specified by
one of the environment variables `LC_ALL', `LC_CTYPE', and `LANG'.
(The first one, in the order specified above, whose value is nonempty
is the one that determines the text representation.)


File: emacs,  Node: Fontsets,  Next: Defining Fontsets,  Prev: Specify Coding,  Up: International

Fontsets
========

   A font for X typically defines shapes for a single alphabet or
script.  Therefore, displaying the entire range of scripts that Emacs
supports requires a collection of many fonts.  In Emacs, such a
collection is called a "fontset".  A fontset is defined by a list of
fonts, each assigned to handle a range of character codes.

   Each fontset has a name, like a font.  The available X fonts are
defined by the X server; fontsets, however, are defined within Emacs
itself.  Once you have defined a fontset, you can use it within Emacs by
specifying its name, anywhere that you could use a single font.  Of
course, Emacs fontsets can use only the fonts that the X server
supports; if certain characters appear on the screen as hollow boxes,
this means that the fontset in use for them has no font for those
characters.(1)

   Emacs creates two fontsets automatically: the "standard fontset" and
the "startup fontset".  The standard fontset is most likely to have
fonts for a wide variety of non-ASCII characters; however, this is not
the default for Emacs to use.  (By default, Emacs tries to find a font
that has bold and italic variants.)  You can specify use of the
standard fontset with the `-fn' option, or with the `Font' X resource
(*note Font X::).  For example,

     emacs -fn fontset-standard

   A fontset does not necessarily specify a font for every character
code.  If a fontset specifies no font for a certain character, or if it
specifies a font that does not exist on your system, then it cannot
display that character properly.  It will display that character as an
empty box instead.

   The fontset height and width are determined by the ASCII characters
(that is, by the font used for ASCII characters in that fontset).  If
another font in the fontset has a different height, or a different
width, then characters assigned to that font are clipped to the
fontset's size.  If `highlight-wrong-size-font' is non-`nil', a box is
displayed around these wrong-size characters as well.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The Emacs installation instructions have information on
additional font support.


File: emacs,  Node: Defining Fontsets,  Next: Undisplayable Characters,  Prev: Fontsets,  Up: International

Defining fontsets
=================

   Emacs creates a standard fontset automatically according to the value
of `standard-fontset-spec'.  This fontset's name is

     -*-fixed-medium-r-normal-*-16-*-*-*-*-*-fontset-standard

or just `fontset-standard' for short.

   Bold, italic, and bold-italic variants of the standard fontset are
created automatically.  Their names have `bold' instead of `medium', or
`i' instead of `r', or both.

   If you specify a default ASCII font with the `Font' resource or the
`-fn' argument, Emacs generates a fontset from it automatically.  This
is the "startup fontset" and its name is `fontset-startup'.  It does
this by replacing the FOUNDRY, FAMILY, ADD_STYLE, and AVERAGE_WIDTH
fields of the font name with `*', replacing CHARSET_REGISTRY field with
`fontset', and replacing CHARSET_ENCODING field with `startup', then
using the resulting string to specify a fontset.

   For instance, if you start Emacs this way,

     emacs -fn "*courier-medium-r-normal--14-140-*-iso8859-1"

Emacs generates the following fontset and uses it for the initial X
window frame:

     -*-*-medium-r-normal-*-14-140-*-*-*-*-fontset-startup

   With the X resource `Emacs.Font', you can specify a fontset name
just like an actual font name.  But be careful not to specify a fontset
name in a wildcard resource like `Emacs*Font'--that wildcard
specification matches various other resources, such as for menus, and
menus cannot handle fontsets.

   You can specify additional fontsets using X resources named
`Fontset-N', where N is an integer starting from 0.  The resource value
should have this form:

     FONTPATTERN, [CHARSETNAME:FONTNAME]...

FONTPATTERN should have the form of a standard X font name, except for
the last two fields.  They should have the form `fontset-ALIAS'.

   The fontset has two names, one long and one short.  The long name is
FONTPATTERN.  The short name is `fontset-ALIAS'.  You can refer to the
fontset by either name.

   The construct `CHARSET:FONT' specifies which font to use (in this
fontset) for one particular character set.  Here, CHARSET is the name
of a character set, and FONT is the font to use for that character set.
You can use this construct any number of times in defining one fontset.

   For the other character sets, Emacs chooses a font based on
FONTPATTERN.  It replaces `fontset-ALIAS' with values that describe the
character set.  For the ASCII character font, `fontset-ALIAS' is
replaced with `ISO8859-1'.

   In addition, when several consecutive fields are wildcards, Emacs
collapses them into a single wildcard.  This is to prevent use of
auto-scaled fonts.  Fonts made by scaling larger fonts are not usable
for editing, and scaling a smaller font is not useful because it is
better to use the smaller font in its own size, which is what Emacs
does.

   Thus if FONTPATTERN is this,

     -*-fixed-medium-r-normal-*-24-*-*-*-*-*-fontset-24

the font specification for ASCII characters would be this:

     -*-fixed-medium-r-normal-*-24-*-ISO8859-1

and the font specification for Chinese GB2312 characters would be this:

     -*-fixed-medium-r-normal-*-24-*-gb2312*-*

   You may not have any Chinese font matching the above font
specification.  Most X distributions include only Chinese fonts that
have `song ti' or `fangsong ti' in FAMILY field.  In such a case,
`Fontset-N' can be specified as below:

     Emacs.Fontset-0: -*-fixed-medium-r-normal-*-24-*-*-*-*-*-fontset-24,\
             chinese-gb2312:-*-*-medium-r-normal-*-24-*-gb2312*-*

Then, the font specifications for all but Chinese GB2312 characters have
`fixed' in the FAMILY field, and the font specification for Chinese
GB2312 characters has a wild card `*' in the FAMILY field.

   The function that processes the fontset resource value to create the
fontset is called `create-fontset-from-fontset-spec'.  You can also
call this function explicitly to create a fontset.

   *Note Font X::, for more information about font naming in X.


File: emacs,  Node: Undisplayable Characters,  Next: Single-Byte Character Support,  Prev: Defining Fontsets,  Up: International

Undisplayable Characters
========================

   Your terminal may be unable to display some non-ASCII characters.
Most non-windowing terminals can only use a single character set (use
the variable `default-terminal-coding-system' (*note Specify Coding::)
to tell Emacs which one); characters which can't be encoded in that
coding system are displayed as `?' by default.

   Windowing terminals can display a broader range of characters, but
you may not have fonts installed for all of them; characters that have
no font appear as a hollow box.

   If you use Latin-1 characters but your terminal can't display
Latin-1, you can arrange to display mnemonic ASCII sequences instead,
e.g. `"o' for o-umlaut.  Load the library `iso-ascii' to do this.

   If your terminal can display Latin-1, you can display characters
from other European character sets using a mixture of equivalent
Latin-1 characters and ASCII mnemonics.  Use the Custom option
`latin1-display' to enable this.  The mnemonic ASCII sequences mostly
correspond to those of the prefix input methods.


File: emacs,  Node: Single-Byte Character Support,  Prev: Undisplayable Characters,  Up: International

Single-byte Character Set Support
=================================

   The ISO 8859 Latin-N character sets define character codes in the
range 0240 to 0377 octal (160 to 255 decimal) to handle the accented
letters and punctuation needed by various European languages (and some
non-European ones).  If you disable multibyte characters, Emacs can
still handle _one_ of these character codes at a time.  To specify
_which_ of these codes to use, invoke `M-x set-language-environment'
and specify a suitable language environment such as `Latin-N'.

   For more information about unibyte operation, see *Note Enabling
Multibyte::.  Note particularly that you probably want to ensure that
your initialization files are read as unibyte if they contain non-ASCII
characters.

   Emacs can also display those characters, provided the terminal or
font in use supports them.  This works automatically.  Alternatively,
if you are using a window system, Emacs can also display single-byte
characters through fontsets, in effect by displaying the equivalent
multibyte characters according to the current language environment.  To
request this, set the variable
`unibyte-display-via-language-environment' to a non-`nil' value.

   If your terminal does not support display of the Latin-1 character
set, Emacs can display these characters as ASCII sequences which at
least give you a clear idea of what the characters are.  To do this,
load the library `iso-ascii'.  Similar libraries for other Latin-N
character sets could be implemented, but we don't have them yet.

   Normally non-ISO-8859 characters (decimal codes between 128 and 159
inclusive) are displayed as octal escapes.  You can change this for
non-standard "extended" versions of ISO-8859 character sets by using the
function `standard-display-8bit' in the `disp-table' library.

   There are several ways you can input single-byte non-ASCII
characters:

   * If your keyboard can generate character codes 128 (decimal) and up,
     representing non-ASCII characters, you can type those character
     codes directly.

     On a windowing terminal, you should not need to do anything
     special to use these keys; they should simply work.  On a
     text-only terminal, you should use the command `M-x
     set-keyboard-coding-system' or the Custom option
     `keyboard-coding-system' to specify which coding system your
     keyboard uses (*note Specify Coding::).  Enabling this feature
     will probably require you to use `ESC' to type Meta characters;
     however, on a Linux console or in `xterm', you can arrange for
     Meta to be converted to `ESC' and still be able type 8-bit
     characters present directly on the keyboard or using `Compose' or
     `AltGr' keys.  *Note User Input::.

   * You can use an input method for the selected language environment.
     *Note Input Methods::.  When you use an input method in a unibyte
     buffer, the non-ASCII character you specify with it is converted
     to unibyte.

   * For Latin-1 only, you can use the key `C-x 8' as a "compose
     character" prefix for entry of non-ASCII Latin-1 printing
     characters.  `C-x 8' is good for insertion (in the minibuffer as
     well as other buffers), for searching, and in any other context
     where a key sequence is allowed.

     `C-x 8' works by loading the `iso-transl' library.  Once that
     library is loaded, the <ALT> modifier key, if you have one, serves
     the same purpose as `C-x 8'; use <ALT> together with an accent
     character to modify the following letter.  In addition, if you
     have keys for the Latin-1 "dead accent characters," they too are
     defined to compose with the following character, once `iso-transl'
     is loaded.  Use `C-x 8 C-h' to list the available translations as
     mnemonic command names.

   * For Latin-1, Latin-2 and Latin-3, `M-x iso-accents-mode' enables a
     minor mode that works much like the `latin-1-prefix' input method,
     but does not depend on having the input methods installed.  This
     mode is buffer-local.  It can be customized for various languages
     with `M-x iso-accents-customize'.


File: emacs,  Node: Major Modes,  Next: Indentation,  Prev: International,  Up: Top

Major Modes
***********

   Emacs provides many alternative "major modes", each of which
customizes Emacs for editing text of a particular sort.  The major modes
are mutually exclusive, and each buffer has one major mode at any time.
The mode line normally shows the name of the current major mode, in
parentheses (*note Mode Line::).

   The least specialized major mode is called "Fundamental mode".  This
mode has no mode-specific redefinitions or variable settings, so that
each Emacs command behaves in its most general manner, and each option
is in its default state.  For editing text of a specific type that
Emacs knows about, such as Lisp code or English text, you should switch
to the appropriate major mode, such as Lisp mode or Text mode.

   Selecting a major mode changes the meanings of a few keys to become
more specifically adapted to the language being edited.  The ones that
are changed frequently are <TAB>, <DEL>, and `C-j'.  The prefix key
`C-c' normally contains mode-specific commands.  In addition, the
commands which handle comments use the mode to determine how comments
are to be delimited.  Many major modes redefine the syntactical
properties of characters appearing in the buffer.  *Note Syntax::.

   The major modes fall into three major groups.  The first group
contains modes for normal text, either plain or with mark-up.  It
includes Text mode, HTML mode, SGML mode, TeX mode and Outline mode.
The second group contains modes for specific programming languages.
These include Lisp mode (which has several variants), C mode, Fortran
mode, and others.  The remaining major modes are not intended for use
on users' files; they are used in buffers created for specific purposes
by Emacs, such as Dired mode for buffers made by Dired (*note Dired::),
Mail mode for buffers made by `C-x m' (*note Sending Mail::), and Shell
mode for buffers used for communicating with an inferior shell process
(*note Interactive Shell::).

   Most programming-language major modes specify that only blank lines
separate paragraphs.  This is to make the paragraph commands useful.
(*Note Paragraphs::.)  They also cause Auto Fill mode to use the
definition of <TAB> to indent the new lines it creates.  This is
because most lines in a program are usually indented (*note
Indentation::).

* Menu:

* Choosing Modes::     How major modes are specified or chosen.


File: emacs,  Node: Choosing Modes,  Prev: Major Modes,  Up: Major Modes

How Major Modes are Chosen
==========================

   You can select a major mode explicitly for the current buffer, but
most of the time Emacs determines which mode to use based on the file
name or on special text in the file.

   Explicit selection of a new major mode is done with a `M-x' command.
From the name of a major mode, add `-mode' to get the name of a command
to select that mode.  Thus, you can enter Lisp mode by executing `M-x
lisp-mode'.

   When you visit a file, Emacs usually chooses the right major mode
based on the file's name.  For example, files whose names end in `.c'
are edited in C mode.  The correspondence between file names and major
modes is controlled by the variable `auto-mode-alist'.  Its value is a
list in which each element has this form,

     (REGEXP . MODE-FUNCTION)

or this form,

     (REGEXP MODE-FUNCTION FLAG)

For example, one element normally found in the list has the form
`("\\.c\\'" . c-mode)', and it is responsible for selecting C mode for
files whose names end in `.c'.  (Note that `\\' is needed in Lisp
syntax to include a `\' in the string, which must be used to suppress
the special meaning of `.' in regexps.)  If the element has the form
`(REGEXP MODE-FUNCTION FLAG)' and FLAG is non-`nil', then after calling
MODE-FUNCTION, the suffix that matched REGEXP is discarded and the list
is searched again for another match.

   You can specify which major mode should be used for editing a certain
file by a special sort of text in the first nonblank line of the file.
The mode name should appear in this line both preceded and followed by
`-*-'.  Other text may appear on the line as well.  For example,

     ;-*-Lisp-*-

tells Emacs to use Lisp mode.  Such an explicit specification overrides
any defaults based on the file name.  Note how the semicolon is used to
make Lisp treat this line as a comment.

   Another format of mode specification is

     -*- mode: MODENAME;-*-

which allows you to specify local variables as well, like this:

     -*- mode: MODENAME; VAR: VALUE; ... -*-

*Note File Variables::, for more information about this.

   When a file's contents begin with `#!', it can serve as an
executable shell command, which works by running an interpreter named on
the file's first line.  The rest of the file is used as input to the
interpreter.

   When you visit such a file in Emacs, if the file's name does not
specify a major mode, Emacs uses the interpreter name on the first line
to choose a mode.  If the first line is the name of a recognized
interpreter program, such as `perl' or `tcl', Emacs uses a mode
appropriate for programs for that interpreter.  The variable
`interpreter-mode-alist' specifies the correspondence between
interpreter program names and major modes.

   When the first line starts with `#!', you cannot (on many systems)
use the `-*-' feature on the first line, because the system would get
confused when running the interpreter.  So Emacs looks for `-*-' on the
second line in such files as well as on the first line.

   When you visit a file that does not specify a major mode to use, or
when you create a new buffer with `C-x b', the variable
`default-major-mode' specifies which major mode to use.  Normally its
value is the symbol `fundamental-mode', which specifies Fundamental
mode.  If `default-major-mode' is `nil', the major mode is taken from
the previously current buffer.

   If you change the major mode of a buffer, you can go back to the
major mode Emacs would choose automatically: use the command `M-x
normal-mode' to do this.  This is the same function that `find-file'
calls to choose the major mode.  It also processes the file's local
variables list (if any).

   The commands `C-x C-w' and `set-visited-file-name' change to a new
major mode if the new file name implies a mode (*note Saving::).
However, this does not happen if the buffer contents specify a major
mode, and certain "special" major modes do not allow the mode to
change.  You can turn off this mode-changing feature by setting
`change-major-mode-with-file-name' to `nil'.


File: emacs,  Node: Indentation,  Next: Text,  Prev: Major Modes,  Up: Top

Indentation
***********

   This chapter describes the Emacs commands that add, remove, or
adjust indentation.

`<TAB>'
     Indent the current line "appropriately" in a mode-dependent
     fashion.

`C-j'
     Perform <RET> followed by <TAB> (`newline-and-indent').

`M-^'
     Merge the previous and the current line (`delete-indentation').
     This would cancel out the effect of `C-j'.

`C-M-o'
     Split the current line at point; text on the line after point
     becomes a new line indented to the same column where point is
     located (`split-line').

`M-m'
     Move (forward or back) to the first nonblank character on the
     current line (`back-to-indentation').

`C-M-\'
     Indent several lines to the same column (`indent-region').

`C-x <TAB>'
     Shift a block of lines rigidly right or left (`indent-rigidly').

`M-i'
     Indent from point to the next prespecified tab stop column
     (`tab-to-tab-stop').

`M-x indent-relative'
     Indent from point to under an indentation point in the previous
     line.

   Most programming languages have some indentation convention.  For
Lisp code, lines are indented according to their nesting in
parentheses.  The same general idea is used for C code, though many
details are different.

   Whatever the language, to indent a line, use the <TAB> command.  Each
major mode defines this command to perform the sort of indentation
appropriate for the particular language.  In Lisp mode, <TAB> aligns
the line according to its depth in parentheses.  No matter where in the
line you are when you type <TAB>, it aligns the line as a whole.  In C
mode, <TAB> implements a subtle and sophisticated indentation style that
knows about many aspects of C syntax.

   In Text mode, <TAB> runs the command `tab-to-tab-stop', which
indents to the next tab stop column.  You can set the tab stops with
`M-x edit-tab-stops'.

   Normally, <TAB> inserts an optimal mix of tabs and spaces for the
intended indentation.  *Note Just Spaces::, for how to prevent use of
tabs.

* Menu:

* Indentation Commands::  Various commands and techniques for indentation.
* Tab Stops::             You can set arbitrary "tab stops" and then
                            indent to the next tab stop when you want to.
* Just Spaces::           You can request indentation using just spaces.


File: emacs,  Node: Indentation Commands,  Next: Tab Stops,  Prev: Indentation,  Up: Indentation

Indentation Commands and Techniques
===================================

   To move over the indentation on a line, do `M-m'
(`back-to-indentation').  This command, given anywhere on a line,
positions point at the first nonblank character on the line.

   To insert an indented line before the current line, do `C-a C-o
<TAB>'.  To make an indented line after the current line, use `C-e C-j'.

   If you just want to insert a tab character in the buffer, you can
type `C-q <TAB>'.

   `C-M-o' (`split-line') moves the text from point to the end of the
line vertically down, so that the current line becomes two lines.
`C-M-o' first moves point forward over any spaces and tabs.  Then it
inserts after point a newline and enough indentation to reach the same
column point is on.  Point remains before the inserted newline; in this
regard, `C-M-o' resembles `C-o'.

   To join two lines cleanly, use the `M-^' (`delete-indentation')
command.  It deletes the indentation at the front of the current line,
and the line boundary as well, replacing them with a single space.  As
a special case (useful for Lisp code) the single space is omitted if
the characters to be joined are consecutive open parentheses or closing
parentheses, or if the junction follows another newline.  To delete
just the indentation of a line, go to the beginning of the line and use
`M-\' (`delete-horizontal-space'), which deletes all spaces and tabs
around the cursor.

   If you have a fill prefix, `M-^' deletes the fill prefix if it
appears after the newline that is deleted.  *Note Fill Prefix::.

   There are also commands for changing the indentation of several lines
at once.  `C-M-\' (`indent-region') applies to all the lines that begin
in the region; it indents each line in the "usual" way, as if you had
typed <TAB> at the beginning of the line.  A numeric argument specifies
the column to indent to, and each line is shifted left or right so that
its first nonblank character appears in that column.  `C-x <TAB>'
(`indent-rigidly') moves all of the lines in the region right by its
argument (left, for negative arguments).  The whole group of lines
moves rigidly sideways, which is how the command gets its name.

   `M-x indent-relative' indents at point based on the previous line
(actually, the last nonempty line).  It inserts whitespace at point,
moving point, until it is underneath an indentation point in the
previous line.  An indentation point is the end of a sequence of
whitespace or the end of the line.  If point is farther right than any
indentation point in the previous line, the whitespace before point is
deleted and the first indentation point then applicable is used.  If no
indentation point is applicable even then, `indent-relative' runs
`tab-to-tab-stop' (*note Tab Stops::), unless it is called with a
numeric argument, in which case it does nothing.

   `indent-relative' is the definition of <TAB> in Indented Text mode.
*Note Text::.

   *Note Format Indentation::, for another way of specifying the
indentation for part of your text.


File: emacs,  Node: Tab Stops,  Next: Just Spaces,  Prev: Indentation Commands,  Up: Indentation

Tab Stops
=========

   For typing in tables, you can use Text mode's definition of <TAB>,
`tab-to-tab-stop'.  This command inserts indentation before point,
enough to reach the next tab stop column.  If you are not in Text mode,
this command can be found on the key `M-i'.

   You can specify the tab stops used by `M-i'.  They are stored in a
variable called `tab-stop-list', as a list of column-numbers in
increasing order.

   The convenient way to set the tab stops is with `M-x
edit-tab-stops', which creates and selects a buffer containing a
description of the tab stop settings.  You can edit this buffer to
specify different tab stops, and then type `C-c C-c' to make those new
tab stops take effect.  `edit-tab-stops' records which buffer was
current when you invoked it, and stores the tab stops back in that
buffer; normally all buffers share the same tab stops and changing them
in one buffer affects all, but if you happen to make `tab-stop-list'
local in one buffer then `edit-tab-stops' in that buffer will edit the
local settings.

   Here is what the text representing the tab stops looks like for
ordinary tab stops every eight columns.

             :       :       :       :       :       :
     0         1         2         3         4
     0123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678
     To install changes, type C-c C-c

   The first line contains a colon at each tab stop.  The remaining
lines are present just to help you see where the colons are and know
what to do.

   Note that the tab stops that control `tab-to-tab-stop' have nothing
to do with displaying tab characters in the buffer.  *Note Display
Custom::, for more information on that.


File: emacs,  Node: Just Spaces,  Prev: Tab Stops,  Up: Indentation

Tabs vs. Spaces
===============

   Emacs normally uses both tabs and spaces to indent lines.  If you
prefer, all indentation can be made from spaces only.  To request this,
set `indent-tabs-mode' to `nil'.  This is a per-buffer variable, so
altering the variable affects only the current buffer, but there is a
default value which you can change as well.  *Note Locals::.

   There are also commands to convert tabs to spaces or vice versa,
always preserving the columns of all nonblank text.  `M-x tabify' scans
the region for sequences of spaces, and converts sequences of at least
three spaces to tabs if that can be done without changing indentation.
`M-x untabify' changes all tabs in the region to appropriate numbers of
spaces.


File: emacs,  Node: Text,  Next: Programs,  Prev: Indentation,  Up: Top

Commands for Human Languages
****************************

   The term "text" has two widespread meanings in our area of the
computer field.  One is data that is a sequence of characters.  Any file
that you edit with Emacs is text, in this sense of the word.  The other
meaning is more restrictive: a sequence of characters in a human
language for humans to read (possibly after processing by a text
formatter), as opposed to a program or commands for a program.

   Human languages have syntactic/stylistic conventions that can be
supported or used to advantage by editor commands: conventions involving
words, sentences, paragraphs, and capital letters.  This chapter
describes Emacs commands for all of these things.  There are also
commands for "filling", which means rearranging the lines of a
paragraph to be approximately equal in length.  The commands for moving
over and killing words, sentences and paragraphs, while intended
primarily for editing text, are also often useful for editing programs.

   Emacs has several major modes for editing human-language text.  If
the file contains text pure and simple, use Text mode, which customizes
Emacs in small ways for the syntactic conventions of text.  Outline mode
provides special commands for operating on text with an outline
structure.

   For text which contains embedded commands for text formatters, Emacs
has other major modes, each for a particular text formatter.  Thus, for
input to TeX, you would use TeX mode.  For input to nroff, use Nroff
mode.

   Instead of using a text formatter, you can edit formatted text in
WYSIWYG style ("what you see is what you get"), with Enriched mode.
Then the formatting appears on the screen in Emacs while you edit.

   The "automatic typing" features may be useful when writing text.
*Note Autotyping: (autotype)Top.

* Menu:

* Words::	        Moving over and killing words.
* Sentences::	        Moving over and killing sentences.
* Paragraphs::	        Moving over paragraphs.
* Pages::	        Moving over pages.
* Filling::	        Filling or justifying text.
* Case::	        Changing the case of text.
* Text Mode::	        The major modes for editing text files.
* Outline Mode::        Editing outlines.
* TeX Mode::	        Editing input to the formatter TeX.
* Nroff Mode::	        Editing input to the formatter nroff.
* Formatted Text::      Editing formatted text directly in WYSIWYG fashion.


File: emacs,  Node: Words,  Next: Sentences,  Up: Text

Words
=====

   Emacs has commands for moving over or operating on words.  By
convention, the keys for them are all Meta characters.

`M-f'
     Move forward over a word (`forward-word').

`M-b'
     Move backward over a word (`backward-word').

`M-d'
     Kill up to the end of a word (`kill-word').

`M-<DEL>'
     Kill back to the beginning of a word (`backward-kill-word').

`M-@'
     Mark the end of the next word (`mark-word').

`M-t'
     Transpose two words or drag a word across other words
     (`transpose-words').

   Notice how these keys form a series that parallels the
character-based `C-f', `C-b', `C-d', <DEL> and `C-t'.  `M-@' is cognate
to `C-@', which is an alias for `C-<SPC>'.

   The commands `M-f' (`forward-word') and `M-b' (`backward-word') move
forward and backward over words.  These Meta characters are thus
analogous to the corresponding control characters, `C-f' and `C-b',
which move over single characters in the text.  The analogy extends to
numeric arguments, which serve as repeat counts.  `M-f' with a negative
argument moves backward, and `M-b' with a negative argument moves
forward.  Forward motion stops right after the last letter of the word,
while backward motion stops right before the first letter.

   `M-d' (`kill-word') kills the word after point.  To be precise, it
kills everything from point to the place `M-f' would move to.  Thus, if
point is in the middle of a word, `M-d' kills just the part after
point.  If some punctuation comes between point and the next word, it
is killed along with the word.  (If you wish to kill only the next word
but not the punctuation before it, simply do `M-f' to get the end, and
kill the word backwards with `M-<DEL>'.)  `M-d' takes arguments just
like `M-f'.

   `M-<DEL>' (`backward-kill-word') kills the word before point.  It
kills everything from point back to where `M-b' would move to.  If
point is after the space in `FOO, BAR', then `FOO, ' is killed.  (If
you wish to kill just `FOO', and not the comma and the space, use `M-b
M-d' instead of `M-<DEL>'.)

   `M-t' (`transpose-words') exchanges the word before or containing
point with the following word.  The delimiter characters between the
words do not move.  For example, `FOO, BAR' transposes into `BAR, FOO'
rather than `BAR FOO,'.  *Note Transpose::, for more on transposition
and on arguments to transposition commands.

   To operate on the next N words with an operation which applies
between point and mark, you can either set the mark at point and then
move over the words, or you can use the command `M-@' (`mark-word')
which does not move point, but sets the mark where `M-f' would move to.
`M-@' accepts a numeric argument that says how many words to scan for
the place to put the mark.  In Transient Mark mode, this command
activates the mark.

   The word commands' understanding of syntax is completely controlled
by the syntax table.  Any character can, for example, be declared to be
a word delimiter.  *Note Syntax::.

